There are three main research centres for Human Language Technologies in Europe. One of them is located in Dublin, Ireland. It conducts research into the processing of human language by computers, such as speech recognition and synthesis, machine translation, human-computer interfaces, information retieval and extraction, the teaching and learning of languages using computers and software localisation and globalisation.

The second outstanding research centre is in Germany and it’s called National Centre for Language Technology. Their main objective is to reach the improvement of language technology through novel computational techniques for processing text, speech and knowledge. They also want to be able to reach a deeper understanding of human language and thought, studying the true needs of the end user and the demands of the market.

Finally, the third main research centre we can find is the Edinburgh Language Technology Group, which is in Scotland, UK. It’s a research and development group and it’s members have been working in the area of natural language engineering since 1990. This group was originally founded as part of the Human Communication Research Centre; actually, it’s based in the Institute for Communicating and Collaborative Systems of the Division of Informatics of thesity of Edinburgh, which is one of the largest communities of natural language processing specialists in Europe.

They focus on building practical solutions to real problems in text processing. Furthermore, they have worked in all areas of large-volume text handling, from text annotation through markup architectures and from information extraction to automatic or computer – assisted generation of text.

• National Centre for Language Technology.(2002, July 12). In Dublin City University. Retrieved 19:55, March 25, 2009, from http://www.nclt.dcu.ie/areas.html
• German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence (2008). Language Technology Lab (DFKI Germany). Retrieved 20:07, March 7, 2009, from http://www.dfki.de/lt/index.php
• Edinburgh Language Technology Group (Scotland, UK). (2006, June 30). Retrieved 20:19 March 25, 2009, from http://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/

 

Martyn Kay, who is a scientist specialiced in computers, is mainly known for his work in computational linguistics. He was born and grown in Great Britain and, in 1961 he was given his M.A. from Trinity College, Cambridge, However, in 1958 he started to work at the Cambridge Language Research Unit, which was one of the earliest centers for research in what is now known as Computational Linguistics. In 1961, he went to work to to the Rand Corporation in Santa Monica, California, where he  became head of research in linguistics and machine translation in a very short period of time. He left Rand in 1972 to become Chair of the Department of Computer Science at the University of California, Irvine. In 1974, he moved to the Xerox Palo Alto Researc Center as a Research Fellow. In 1985, while he was retaining his position at Xerox PARC, he joined the faculty of Stanford University half – time. Actually, he is Professor of Linguistics at Stanford University and Honorary Professor of Computational Linguistics at Saarland University.

According to Stanford Department of Linguistics, Martyn  Kay was responsible for introducing the notion of chart parsing in computational linguistics, and the notion of unification in linguistics commonly. On the other hand, while he was working with Ron Kaplan, he was pioneer of finite-state morphology. He has been a longtime contributor to, and critic of, work on machine translation. Also, while he was Permanent Chairman of the International Committee on Computational Linguistics, Kay was a Research Fellow at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center until 2002.

• Martin Kay. (2008, June 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 11:35, March 23, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Kay&oldid=217746063
• Martin Kay (2004, October 21). In Stanford Department of Linguistics, Retrieved 14:41, March 20, 2009, from: http://www-linguistics.stanford.edu/people/pages/kay.shtml

• Gianni Lazzari (2006, may). Project TC-STAR – Technology and Corpora for Speech-to-Speech Translation. Project Manager: Gianni Lazzari – IST-2002-FP6-506738  Retrieved 12:30, March 16 from http://www.tc-star.org/pubblicazioni/D17_HLT_ENG.pdf
• Language technology. (2008, April 1). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 10:31, March 18, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language_technology&oldid=202607020
• Human Language Technologies (HLT).  Meraka Institute, the African Advanced Institute for Information and Communication Technology. Retrieved 12:29, March 22, 2009, from http://www.meraka.org.za/humanLanguage.htm

First of all let’s define these two concepts: On the one hand, according to Wikipedia, Web 1.0 is a retronym that refers to the state of the World Wide Web, and any website design style used before the advent of the Web 2.0 phenomenon. It is the general term which has been created to describe the Web before 2001, which is seen by a lot of people as a turning point for the internet.

On the other hand we have got Web 2.0. Also according to the webpage Wikipedia, it is defined like a term which describes the changing trends in the use of WWW technology and web design that aim to enhance communications, creativity, secure information sharing, collaboration and functionality of the web. Web 2.0 concepts have led to the development and evolution of web – culture communities and hosted services. We can appreciate the following examples social – networking sites, wikis and blogs, video sharing sites and folksonomies.

Moreover, the bursting of the dot-com bubble in the fall of 2001 marked a turning point for the web. It is considered the border between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0. The term of Web 2.0 began with a conference brainstorming session between Tim O’Reilly and MediaLive International.

• Web 1.0. (2009, February 4). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:47, February 4, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Web_1.0&oldid=268421998
•  Web 2.0. (2009, February 4). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:48, February 4, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Web_2.0&oldid=268435745

• What is web 2.0 (2005, September, 30)  from Tim O’Reilly’s webpage, retrieved 04/02/2009, 10:59 http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html

RSS is a format based on XML which permits us to find the best information for anybody who is looking for something on the Internet. It also offers us the possibility of finding that information on a quickier way.

There are three kind of RSS formats:

However, according to Wikipedia, RSS is part of the family of Web feed formats, which are usually used to publish frequently updated works, for example: blog entries, news headlines, audio and video. They are updated in a standardized format.

Moreover, there are some RSS documents; each of these documents can be also called “feed”, “web feed” or “channel”. They include full or summarized texts. Web feeds or RSS documents benefit publishers by letting them syndicate content automatically. They benefit readers who want to subscribe to timely updates from favored websites or to aggregate feeds from many sites into one place.

RSS solves problems for surfers who regularly use the web. It does allow us to easily stay informed by retrieving the latest updates from the sites we are interested in. With these format we don’t need to visit each site individually.

References

• RSS. (2009, January 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:23, January 22, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RSS&oldid=265667297
•  Why RSS? Benefits and Reasons for using RSS from What Is RSS? RSS Explained. Retrieved  2009/01/22 16:29 from http://www.whatisrss.com/
• ¿Qué es el RSS? Retrieved 2009/01/16:30 from http://es.geocities.com/rss_guia_facil/que_es_rss.html

On the one hand and according to the Webpage http://www.w3.org/ and the scientist Ted Nelson, the meaning of  Hypertext (a concept, not a product) is a text which contains links and isn’t constrained to be clear. However, Wikipedia says that the Hypertext text on a computer that will lead the user to other, related information on demand. Hypertext is a representation of  a relative recent innovation to user interfaces.

On the other hand,Roland Barthes points out that the hypertext is an ideal text that precisely matches. As I said before, it consist on a text composed of an amount of words or images linked electronically. They are also perpetually unfinished.

Hypertext is a text that branches and allows choices to the reader, such as the possibility of taking differet pathways to read the text the reader wants to. Hypertext also denotes a medium information, which links verbal and non – verbal information.

• Hypertext. (2009, January 3). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:29, January 14, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypertext&oldid=261678198 

• The Definition of Hypertext and Its History as a Concept (Pages 3-4 in print version. © the Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992) from cyberartsweb retrieved 14/01/2009 20:33 http://www.cyberartsweb.org/cpace/ht/jhup/history.html#1 

• What is HyperText? retrieved 14/01/2009 20:35 http://www.w3.org/WhatIs.html 

XML is an initialism of Estensible Markup Language. This is a general purpose specification for creating personalized markup languages. It’s clasified as extensible language; it allows everyone to define the mark – up elements. XML a simple and a very flexible text format which derives from SGML and it was originally designed to to meet the challenges of large-scale electronic publishing. The objective is to help information systems in sharing and exchanging structured data, especially via the Internet, to encode documents, and to serialize data; in the last context, it compares serialization languages, which are based on texts, such as JSON and YAML.

References

• XML. (2009, January 9). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:47, January 14, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=XML&oldid=262914902
• Introduction (2008/10/14) from Ubiquitous Web domain retrieved 14/01/2009 17:54 http://www.w3.org/XML/

According to Wikipedia, the meaning of HTML is HyperText Markup Language. It is the predominant markup language of Web pages.  It provides a means to describe the structure of text – based information in a document (by denoting certain text as links, headings, paragraphs, lists, and so on) and to supplement that text with interactive forms, images, and a large number of different kinds of objects. HTML is written in the form of tags, surrounded by angle brackets. HTML can also describe, to some degree, the appearance and semantics of a document, and can include embedded scripting language code, for exmple, JavaScript, which can affect the behavior of Web browsers and other HTML processors.

The HTML is one of the most well-known examples of a markup language in the use of nowadays. The HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is also one of the most used language in the World Wide Web. HTML follows some of the markup conventions used in the industry of publicity in the communication of essays and work which are printed among authors, editors, and printers.

Another definition of HTML, in these case according to the webpage W3C, is that HTML is called lingua franca for publishing hypertext on the WWW. It is a non – proprietary format based upon SGML, and it can be created and processed by a wide range of tools, from simple plain text writers and printers.

• What is HTML? (2009/01/09) from Interation domain retrieved. 14/1/2009 11:45 http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/
• Markup language. (2009, January 12). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 11:14, January 14, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Markup_language&oldid=263559703
• HTML. (2009, January 13). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 11:15, January 14, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HTML&oldid=263891320

First of all, let us define the concepts involved. On the one hand, according to N.H. Nelson, the term hypermedia is used as an extension of the term hypertext, in which graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks are involved, being the World Wide Web the clearest example. On the other hand orality involves the capacity of speaking of each person as well as the gestures and other sources used.

According to experts on the subject, the hypermedia has changed the orality. As Perez Tornero mentions, due to the hypermedia we can send an oral message from one point of the planet to another, giving a kind of globalisation to the text and without realising how far the person receiving the message is. However, according to Brian and Williams, the hypermedia contributes to the worsening of the language as they, as well as networks, are opened to anybody. Besides, almost anything is accepted and owing to that, some writers transfer some of their bad acquired habits in writing from one media to another. Moreover, a big percentage of the users may write without any kind of information or taking it from poor sources.

• Patrick O’Brian & Noel Williams: Computers and Writing, the state of the art. Published by Intellect Books in 1992 ISBN 187151620X, 9781871516203 retrieved from
  http://books.google.es/books?id=Q75qE4u9fEgC
• De la escritura la hipermedia (30-11-1999) by Jose Manuel Perez Tornero from Comunidad de formadores (retrieved December 3th 2008) from http://eformadores.redescolar.ilce.edu.mx/recursos/pdfs_tornero/escritura_hipermedia.pdf
• Hypermedia (2008, October 15). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:54 November 30, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypermedia&oldid=245357554
• Orality, Literacy, Digitality (August 1996) In Tarleton State University. Retrieved: December 3th 13.02. From http://www.tarleton.edu/~lilly/discuss2.htm

Kevin Kelly is an American writer, photographer and conservationist whose writings, despite dropping out of university after one year of studies, has acquired relevance being published in newspapers such as “The New York Times” or “The Economist“. So great has been his success that the well-known film Matrix was based on evidence from his book. We’ve decided to dedicate this article to Kelly due to his wide knowledge on the subject.

According to Kelly, the web has suffered a dramatic change. Whereas years ago, it used to be a green screen with cursors, connecting one computer with another, being known as the “net”, we’ve moved to a new stage now. This stage we are actually in, uses the idea of linking pages. Should I want to go to an airline web page, I will go from my page to FTP site. The evolution the web has suffered is exemplified by the 100 billion clicks done per day or the 2 million emails sent per second. Besides, in the year 2005, there were more than 100 web pages available per person alive. With regards to the future, the web is going to continue its development until it becomes part of us, becoming us at the same time part of it.

As a clear example of this development, we’ve got eBay, the famous portal to sell and buy objects. As Kelly mentions in his article “Ten years ago I heard sceptics swear nobody would ever buy a car on the Web”. Last year eBay Motors sold $11 billion worth of vehicles”.

• “We are the Web” by Kevin Kelly. In Public Television Affinity GroupCoalition. Retrieved 19:30, November 17, 2008, from: http://www.ptv-agc.org/RR-WeAreTheWeb.pdf.pdf

• We are the web. In Wired. retrieved 19:37, November 17, 2008 from: http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/tech.html?pg=2&topic=tech&topic_set=

• Kevin Kelly: Predicting the next 5,000 days of the web. In Ted, ideas for spreading. Retrieved 19:40, November 17, 2008. From: http://www.ted.com/talks/kevin_kelly_on_the_next_5_000_days_of_the_web.html

• Transcription of Kevin Kelly’s talk about the next 5000 days of the web. In Wiki Littera Deusto. Retrieved. 19:40 November 17, 2008. From: http://wiki.littera.deusto.es/en/index.php/Ist0809/KevinKelly5000days

• Kevin Kelly (editor). (2008, October 9). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:10, November 17, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Kelly_(editor)&oldid=244052430